Toxic Substances Come Together

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Hello, my name is Amber Salsburey and I have created this blog to share some information about toxic substances that I have researched while pursuing my Master of Pharmacology degree. I currently work as a firefighter for the City of Columbus, so as a theme for my toxicology posts, I have chosen substances that can be easily encountered in everyday life. I make a conscious effort every day at work to avoid any and all hazards that are in my span of control. Many of the substances discussed in this blog are used in the average persons daily life. The substances discussed thus far include:

Metam sodium– A common pesticide that is known to cause respiratory and dermatological irritation.

Aluminum– A simple but widely used compound in many surprising things, including deodorant, giving it an easy path inside the body.

Diesel exhaust– While, almost everybody who goes outside is exposed, a larger concern is given to those who live near busy highways and in occupational settings. For me specifically, diesel exhaust is a major concern for firefighters.

Rhubarb– A common garden vegetable whose leaves can lead to comatose.

Rhubarb Toxicity

Here is a brief video on rhubarb and its uses:

History:

During World War I rhubarb leaves were recommended as a substitute for other veggies that the war made unavailable. Apparently there were cases of acute poisoning and even some deaths. Some animals, including goats and swine, have also been poisoned by ingesting the leaves.

Source:

Toxic effects originate from the leaves of rhubarb plants rather than the edible stalk part. The plant contains oxalic acid, known to be toxic, and Anthraquinone glycosides which are suspected to be toxic. Oxalic acid can also be found in spinach, brussel sprouts, cauliflower, and broccoli but in lower concentrations.

Information above derived from here.

Oxalic acid is found in rhubarb leaves with a high content of around 0.5 grams per 100 grams of leaves. This is present in the form of oxalic acid, and also in the form of calcium and potassium oxalate salts, and is at a level much higher than that found in other portions of the plant such as the stem. The suggested lethal dose of oxalic acid is in the region of 15-30 grams, meaning you’d have to eat a fair few kilograms of the leaves to reach this dose, but lower doses can still cause nausea and vomiting.

source

Anthraquinones are contributors to the colour of rhubarb, although not major contributors – that part is played by compounds called anthocyanins, common causes of colour in plants. The major anthocyanin in rhubarb is cyanidin-3-glucoside. A range of anthraquinones are also present, including emodin (orange), chrysophanol (yellow), physcion (red-orange), and rhein (red). Besides their colour contribution, these compounds and their derivatives also give rhubarb a laxative effect.

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The compounds of interest as far as these effects go are the sennosides, derivatives of anthraquinones. During digestion, these compounds are hydrolysed into a number of smaller molecules, including rheinanthrone. It’s rheinanthrone that is thought to be the primary compound behind rhubarb’s laxative effect. Sennosides are also found in the senna plant (hence the name), and are commonly used in laxative medications. They’re included in the World Health Organisation’s list of the essential medicines.

Symptoms (of oxalic poisoning):

• weakness
• burning in the mouth
• death from cardiovascular collapse
• difficulty breathing
• burning in the throat/mouth
• abdominal pain
• nausea
• vomiting
• diarrhea
• convulsions
• coma
• kidney stones
• red-colored urine
• eye pain

Symptoms (of anthrquinone poisoning):

• skin irritation
• eye irritation
• discoloration of urine

Carcinogenicity:

No current research supporting the carcinogenicity of oxalic acid or anthroquinones.

No specific acute or chronic exposure distinctions have been made.

Treatment:

• Activated charcoal
• Breathing support
• Fluids by IV
• Laxatives
• gastric lavage
• symptoms may last 1 to 3 days and may require hospital stay

Diesel Exhaust

Photo found here

Sources:

The obvious, and most common sources of diesel exhaust include large trucks such as semis, buses, fire trucks, aircraft, and construction equipment. Other sources of diesel exhaust include diesel powered cars, boats, farm equipment, generators, and railway locomotives.

• The gas portion of diesel exhaust is mostly carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur oxides, and hydrocarbons, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).
• The soot (particulate) portion of diesel exhaust is made up of particles such as carbon, organic materials (including PAHs), and traces of metallic compounds.

Exposure:

–People with some of the highest work exposures include truck drivers, toll booth workers, miners, forklift drivers and other heavy machinery operators, railroad and dock workers, and garage workers and mechanics. Some farm workers also spend a lot of time around diesel exhaust.

-At home if near major highways or large cities

-During commutes or traveling

Carcinogenicity:

It has proven difficult to study the potential cancer risk of diesel exhaust exposure due to peoples varying exposure levels and other unknown and unrelated cancer factors. However,

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) recognizes diesel exhaust as carcinogenic to humans.

The National Toxicology Program (NTP) comprised of the CDC, FDA, and NIH recognize diesel exhaust exposure as “reasonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen”

and the

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) recognizes diesel exhaust as a potential occupational carcinogen.

Target organs:

Lungs

Heart failure and increased risk of heart attack associated with diesel exposure.

Mechanism of Action

• Oxidative stress and inflammation are considered important mechanisms of action for particle-generated cardiovascular diseases and cancer, with the latter also believed to be partially attributed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)

Signs and symptoms of acute exposure

-Diesel exhaust can irritate the eyes, nose, throat and lungs, and it can cause coughs, headaches, lightheadedness and nausea. In studies with human volunteers, diesel exhaust particles made people with allergies more susceptible to the materials to which they are allergic, such as dust and pollen. Exposure to diesel exhaust also causes inflammation in the lungs, which may aggravate chronic respiratory symptoms and increase the frequency or intensity of asthma attacks.

Preventative measures:

– particulate filters

-aid in removing particulate matter from exhaust to prevent inhalation.

– exhaust removal systems

-transfer exhaust from enclosed spaces to open air.

History

Source 

Aluminum comes from many exposure types including:

• cookware
• cans
• antacids
• anti-perspirant
• drying agents used in baking powder, cocoa, salt
• bleached flour (as a bleaching agent)
• cosmetics
• paint
• water

Biotransformation/toxicokinetics

Absorption– Dependent upon other minerals in the body as well as parathyroid hormones. Aluminum can be absorbed orally, through the respiratory epithelium, or through the skin.

Retention

Aluminum is stored mainly in the lungs, liver, thyroid, bone and brain.

Excretion

The majority of aluminum in the blood is bound to plasma proteins. Extensive evidence indicates that aluminum penetrates the blood-brain barrier and is excreted in breast milk. Most aluminum is excreted in the urine and feces.

Pathway through the body

Carcinogenicity

Aluminum is not listed by the IARC as a carcinogen. However, the production of aluminum is classified by the IARC as Class 1, meaning “Carcinogenic to Humans.”

Mechanism of Action 

Antiperspirant- Aluminum works as an antiperspirant by decreasing the activity of sweat glands.

Further explanation of this diagram can be found here.

Effect Of Aluminum On Other Nutrients

Iron- High hair aluminum levels are often associated with high hair iron levels.

Phosphorus- Aluminum hydroxide gel can greatly reduce blood phosphate levels, which can lead to osteoporosis, muscle aches, and weakness. However, this effect is due to the binding action of hydroxide on phosphorus, not the aluminum per se.

Effects Of Other Nutrients On Aluminum

Iron Binding Agents- The iron chelating agent deferoxamine appears to chelate aluminum.

Fluoride- Fluoride competes with aluminum for absorption in the gut.

Vitamin C- High-dosages of ascorbic acid can be used as a chelating agent in cases of aluminum toxicity.

Target organs

Hypoparathyroidism

-Aluminum may trigger a feedback mechanism affecting the parathyroid glands.

Kidney Dysfunction

-Fatty degeneration of the kidney can result from aluminum toxicity.

Liver Dysfunction

-Fatty degeneration of the liver can result from aluminum toxicity.

Neuromuscular Disorders

-There is a possible link between aluminum and Parkinson’s disease.

Signs and symptoms of toxicity

• Early
  • flatulence
  • headaches
  • colic
  • dryness of the skin and mucous membranes
  • tendencies for colds
  • burning pain in the head relieved by food
  • heartburn
  • aversion to meat

• Late
  • paralytic muscular conditions
  • loss of memory
  • mental confusion.

Treatments

Deferoxamine mesylate– given to help eliminate aluminum from your body using a process referred to as chelation.

Aluminum powder in the eyes or on the skin should be rinsed with water or soapy water respectively.

It is recommended to eliminate the use of products known to include aluminum such as anti-perspirant and antacids.

Biomarkers

Blood

A debate currently exists concerning the value of blood aluminum levels to determine aluminum status. It is clear, however, that blood aluminum determinations fail to accurately reflect total body burden of aluminum. This is because brain, lung and often bone measurements reveal much higher levels of aluminum than are found in the blood.

Hair

Hair levels of aluminum have been shown to correlate well with bone levels of aluminum.

Essentiality and deficiency

There is limited evidence that aluminum is essential to human function and equally limited research suggesting that aluminum deficiency inhibits growth.

Metam Sodium: A Toxic Pesticide

Image found here

Chemical structure of Metam Sodium from here.

Background

The PubChem Sodium methyldithiocarbamate compound summary:

Chemical Safety:	Laboratory Chemical Safety Summary (LCSS) Datasheet
InChI Key:	AFCCDDWKHLHPDF-UHFFFAOYSA-M
Molecular Formula:	C2H4NNaS2
UNII:	3CD7UKN224
Chemical Names:	Metam-sodium Metham sodium Metam sodium Carbathione 137-42-8

Metam Sodium physical properties

– organic

– yellow/green

– odor is of sulfur or amine

How it works:

History

-California: There were 390 illnesses/injuries attributed to exposure to metam sodium/MITC alone and 2 further illnesses / injuries attributed to exposure to metam sodium / MITC in combination with other pesticide

Unique Exposure:

Metam sodium was virtually unheard of until the July 14, 1991 spill of 19,500 gallons into California’s Sacramento River.

Toxicity- Exposure to metam sodium, the parent compound of MITC, is projected to occur only under occupational scenarios and only by the dermal route. Toxicity studies show both local irritative and systemic effects. Chronic exposure of rodents through the drinking water was associated with an increased incidence of angiosarcoma (a type of malignant vascular tumor). Metam sodium was also clastogenic and embryotoxic.

A PubMed article with the objective… to evaluate the toxicity of poisoning by metam sodium, a dithiocarbamate fumigant, the breakdown products of which are methyl isothiocyanate (MITC), carbon disulphide (CS2), and dihydrogen sulphide (H2S) found that acute metam sodium exposure usually causes minor symptoms. They vary as a function of the circumstances of exposure, which determine the degradation product that forms. On contact with moist soil, metam sodium decomposes into MITC and causes irritant symptoms. Under specific conditions, such as a spillage in the drainage system, metam sodium can degrade into CS2 and cause neurological signs.

Target organs and treatments

-EYES: Immediately flush the eyes with copious amounts of clear, cool running water for a                              minimum of 15 minutes.
-INHALATION: Move to fresh air, provide O2 if breathing is labored.
-INGESTION: Immediately dilute the swallowed product by giving large quantities of                                      water, but do not induce vomiting. If vomiting occurs, give fluids again.
-SKIN: Immediately flush all affected areas with large amounts of clear water for at least 15                            minutes. Remove contaminated clothing.

Signs of acute exposure: Overexposure to Metam Sodium as sold may result in damage to the skin, skin irritation, excessive salivation, sweating, fatigue, weakness, nausea, headache, dizziness, eye, nose, throat and respiratory tract irritation. In addition, dilution to use levels results in the release of methyl isothiocyanate (MITC) and/or hydrogen sulfide. Overexposure to MITC may result in strong skin and eye irritation, running nose, dizziness, cramps, nausea, vomiting, and mild to severe disturbances of the nervous system. Overexposure to hydrogen sulfide may result in severe irritation to the eyes and mucous membranes. In addition, exposure may result in headache, dizziness, excitement, staggering gait, diarrhea, difficult or painful urination, difficult breathing, chronic pulmonary edema, coma and death.

Signs of chronic exposure: Conjunctivitis, photophobia, digestive disturbances, weight loss, general bodily weakness, and blurred vision. In addition, laboratory studies have shown that exposure to the active ingredient, followed by ingestion of alcohol, may cause an adverse reaction, including low blood pressure, rapid heart beat, and flushing of the skin.

Table of potential health risks from here. This table marks known and unknown effects of Metam Sodium.

This online learning strategies course has helped me become a better student and employee in several different ways. Many of the topics covered throughout this course have been very beneficial and could help not only me but other students and professionals as well.

At the beginning of this course, I knew I procrastinated, but did not really think this class would change that. In the past my teachers, parents, and even other classmates have told me to stop procrastinating and offered advice on how I could do that but nothing ever changed. Although I did not think anything could change, I learned that it could. By planning my homework time a little differently and not waiting until the day things were due to complete them, I learned that I could be a lot less stressed out and actually be able to focus on the assignment rather than just getting it done. I also learned that I should save the times when I do not feel like doing homework for the easy assignments instead of just doing those first in the week when I am refreshed. Now, I do the harder, more time consuming assignments first and it allows me to finish my week more relaxed.

The most meaningful experience in the course was during the second or third week when I actually decided to try to do things early. I had plans that were canceled and decided to distract myself from that by doing a few assignments. Finishing these assignments so early was an eye opening experience for me. This is when I learned that instead of planning my procrastination, I should plan a few hours a couple days a week to just get things done. Figuring this out has helped me get through weeks less stressed and less worried about deadline days because I had the assignments finished way before they were due. If I finish the assignment, it is out of my mind and crossing that off on my planner so early was a great feeling of accomplishment.

Learning about online tools and resources was also very helpful in this course. I learned that there are many different resources available for organizing and planning your notes, resources with tips for taking better notes, websites to help you study, and most importantly to me the OSU library website. Sometimes when I study for tests I rewrite or type my notes from class into an outline form. The websites that allow for a more creative way of filtering through your notes are very helpful. The website that helps you plan your course schedule based on what school you go to is a great website that can help every student. Traditionally, I write down every possible class and time then go through it all to see what fits together the best. Now, I can save a lot of time. Lastly, the OSU library website tutorial was very helpful because I was never shown how to navigate that before. I was a transfer student last semester and have not met anybody that I could ask for help. Being able to watch the video for the assignment in this class about that library taught me a lot.

In the future, I will use the skills I learned about planning my time and work schedules so that I do not procrastinate or stress out over deadlines. I will also use the tutorials and websites given for online tools that are available in case I am having a difficult time researching or studying a topic.

Throughout your academic career you will need to find reliable sources for many things including papers and research. Finding credible sources is extremely important in order to have a well written paper, accurate information, and access to find the resource in the future if needed. To ensure that your source is credible, it needs to be reliable, be of good quality, and have good utility. These are especially important to consider now that most resources used these days are found online.

In order to determine if your resource is reliable, it needs to have the contact info available. It also needs to have the credentials of the author so that you know whoever wrote is knows what they are talking about and is educated. Your source also needs to be from a publisher or organization with a good reputation. If your source in an article, having a peer review of it may also be helpful.

The quality of your source can be determined if it is making broad generalizations or if  it actually provides some detail. It is also a good sign if your source is up to date and consistent throughout its content. The information needs to be well written and without a biased opinin because this can alter your view while you are writing your paper. Lastly, it needs to have citations of all the resources it used.

For your article to have utility, it needs to of course be related to the topic you are interested in. It also should be written for the appropriate audience (at least college level), and provide a good amount of detail.

Sometimes while you are taking notes in class you think you are doing a good job and getting all the important information down. Then later when you go to use your notes you can’t read them, or understand them, or the information you need is not even there.

One way to help prevent this from happening is by following a few note taking strategies. The strategies that can help you improve your note taking include: only writing down the main ideas, include helpful quotes or examples, needed references, and questions you may have. You could also prepare for the lecture by setting up a chart or note taking outline that helps organize the ideas more clearly.

To be able to take better notes you also need to be an active listener. While it is easy to check social networking sites or shop online during class, this does negatively impact your notes even if you think you are listening. To be an active listener you need to: prepare for the lecture, observe the speaker, focus on what they are saying, actually think about what they are saying, write your notes in your own words in a way that you will understand later on, respond to questions and directions, and show your interest by keeping eye contact and sitting up straight in your chair.

This video is a tutorial on how to factor mathematical equations. A few of the steps it explains is lining up your terms from high to low, finding the greatest common factor, and making sure both numbers in the parenthesis are perfect squares. The difference of squares is the next main explanation of the video. It also reminds you of how to make sure you have a quadratic equation to begin with.

This video enhances your understanding of the topic because it uses a popular song that is engaging and keeps it interesting. It also shows examples and highlights or circles the part of the equation they are talking about. Lastly, the teachers and students in the video are young and relatable which, for me, always helps me stay focused.

Online study tools are great resources for students. However I do have some concerns about using online sources versus physical objects such as books and note cards. There are several great websites that provide tools to help you make flashcards and other similar study notes. In my experience, I have learned that I need actual flashcards I can hold and write on. If I make cards online, I tell myself that I can study anywhere by just using my phone but in reality I need the cards in front of me to actually be able to focus. If any student is considering taking advantage of the online tools, I would suggest that you evaluate your tendencies and avoid the websites if you are like me.

Another useful study strategy that works well for me is using the online resources as a final self test to make sure that I really do know the information and can write it down or say it out loud. If these types of activities are done in groups there is a higher likelihood that more resources will be used and different perspectives will be shared that could enhance your understanding. It is also good to help your other classmates because the more you explain it to other people the better you understand it yourself. As long as your studying is organized, focused, and saved for later use you will get more use out of your time.