Τυρρηνοί

Nomenclature

Greek Names: Τυρρηνοί, Τυρσηνοί, Τυρσᾱνοί, Τυρρᾱνοί

Latin Name: Tyrrheni, Etrusci, Tusci

Anglicized Name: Tyrrhenians, Etruscans, Tyrsenians, Tuscans

Contents

• Location
  • Tyrrhenia, Italy
• Origins
  • Language
• Sociopolitical Organization
• Customs and Beliefs
  • Depictions in Myth
  • Divination
  • Religion
  • Burial Practices
  • Etrusca disciplina
• Major Events
• Relationships
  • Trade
  • Conflict
• Material Culture
  • Architecture
  • Tombs

• References

Location

According to Plutarch, the Tyrrhenians once inhabited Lemnos, Imbros, and

Crete. A gravestone at Kaminia on Lemnos dating to 515 BC features an inscription in a non-Greek language using the Greek alphabet, which has been identified as the language of the Tyrsenians who inhabited Lemnos. This language is similar, but not identical, to Etruscan.

Tyrrhenia, Italy

This region was called the “best part of Italy” by Plutarch. These lands were said to bear every type of crop. It began at the Tyrrhenian Sea and the Tiber and extended until the mountains that stretch from Liguria to the Adriatic Sea.

The region of Tyrrhenia boasted local sources of copper (near Volterra and Vetulonia), iron (on Elba and the coast near Populonia), and other metals.

The Tyrrhenian Sea was named after the Tyrrhenians, due to their naval supremacy in the region. The Tyrrhenians were heavily involved in the slave trade of the Tyrrhenian Sea.

Origins

In antiquity and today, there are debates about the origins of the Tyrrhenians. The question revolves around whether they were native to Italy, or if they immigrated from the east. A leader named Tyrrhenus from Lydia was thought to be the ancestor and namesake of the Tyrrhenians, an idea supported by Herodotus and likely widely believed by Greeks, Romans, Lydians, and Tyrrhenians themselves. Dionysius of Halicarnassus refuted these ideas of the Lydian origins of the Tyrrhenians, pointing out the cultural differences in language, institutions, and religion between the Tyrrhenians and the Lydians. Some ancient writers also believed that the Tyrrhenians were once called the Pelasgians, but again Dionysius pointed out the differences in customs and language between these two groups. He also argued that many different groups were mistakenly called the Tyrrhenians, out of a confusion due to the distance between Tyrrhenia and Greece.

Today, the Tyrrhenian culture is believed to have emerged in the 9th or 8th centuries BC, having developed from the early Iron Age Villanovans. Villanovan culture originated by the sea in southern Etruria before spreading north to Tuscany and across the Apennines in the 10th century BC. Villanovan technology such as impressive, crested bronze helmets indicates the status of warriors in their stratified village society. Even at this early point, Greek vases and Phoenician, Aegean and Levantine styled jewelry, weapons, and pottery show contacts between Italy and the eastern Mediterranean. Villanovan brooches, safety-pins, shields, and helmets have also been found at Greek sites.

Language

At the height of their power between 650-500 BC, the Etruscans controlled most of Italy. They came into contact with the Greek alphabet from Euboean traders in Pithecusae and subsequently adapted this alphabet to fit their own language, Etruscan, around 700 BC. This alphabet was used to record merchant transactions, and subsequently spread along trade routes.

The only language similar to Etruscan was spoken on the island of Lemnos in the Aegean Sea. People from southern Etruria are thought to have split off and settled here before or around 700 BC. Although their language is similar, they had strong artistic and cultural differences. There is no known political or economical link between Italy and Lemnos.

Sociopolitical Organization

The Tyrrhenian society consisted of a confederation of twelve major cities each with its own ruler. When all twelve cities would unite for war, one king would be given absolute power, who would receive all the symbols of power during this time. One of these symbols of power was the fasces, a single-bladed axe with a bundle of wooden rods and leader straps. It sometimes had only symbolic meaning, but it could also be used as a portable kit for flogging and decapitation. Some scholars have interpreted it to suggest that the Etruscans controlled and subjugated Latin peoples through intimidation and spectacle. Overall, it was an insignia of legitimate power, one that the Romans adopted in their own institutions.

Other symbols of power of Etruscan rulers included a gold crown, an ivory throne, an eagle-headed scepter, a gold-decorated purple tunic, a rectangular, embroidered purple robe (toga, to the Romans), and an ax with a bundle of rods (fasces). Each king was preceded by a lictor bearing the fasces. The 12 axes from each city were given to Tarquinius when he defeated the Tyrrhenian armies.

According to Strabo, the Tyrrhenians were once unified under one ruler, but over time split into divided cities due to fighting with their neighbors. Eventually, they took to the sea as pirates.

Magistrates, as well as free men, owned individualized houses.

Customs and Beliefs

Depictions in Myth

The Tyrrhenians had a strong naval force and were known to use this to commit piracy. A Homeric hymn tells the story of Dionysos encountering Tyrsenian pirates and turning them into dolphins. A vase by Greek painter Exekias depicting this scene was found in a necropolis in the Etruscan city Vulci. Archaeological evidence from Lemnos and ancient historians confirm that Tyrsenian pirates were present in Greek waters and on Aegean islands and coasts, but the name Tyrsenoi was used broadly to mean barbarian pirates. So, it is not certain that all of these accounts were Etruscans themselves.

Divination

They placed a strong emphasis on the writing and learning of nature, the gods, and the art of divination of thunder and lightning and animal livers. Etruscan soothsayers were called haruspices and were often consulted by the Romans even as late as AD 410 when the Goths invaded Rome.

Religion

The Etruscans welcomed foreign religions along with immigrants, merchants, and trade goods. Religious elements between cultures often blended together, as seen in three gold plaques found at Pyrgoi, the port of Caere, dedicated around 500 BC to a temple of the Etruscan goddess Uni, who was identified with the Greek goddess Hera, Roman Juno, and Phoenician Astarte. The old Italic cults of groves and water sources were still worshipped as foreign religions spread to Etruria, but the amorphous native gods gained shape and personalities based on the Greek Olympians.

The Etruscans were the first “barbarians” admitted to the cult site of Delphi. The Caeretans had connections to shrines there and the foundations of their treasury have even been found there as well. It is said that after the Caeretans massacred Phokaian prisoners after their battle in 540 BC, animals and people who went near the site of the massacre went lame. They consulted the priestess of Apollo at Delphi and were ordered to hold regular games in memory of the Phokaians. Funeral games such as this were depicted on the walls of Etruscan tombs.

The Tyrrhenians were fascinated with Greek mythology and often bought Greek pottery that depicted stories of Greek myths even if it was of poor quality. They also depicted scenes from Greek mythology in their own artworks.

Burial Practices

The Tyrrhenians are known for their elaborate tombs, which were shaped like houses. These were elaborately decorated with wall paintings featuring banquet, games, and hunting scenes, as well as lifelike portraits and sculptures. See Tombs for more information.

Etrusca disciplina

The Etrusca disciplina was a religious code that regulated the Tyrrhenians’ public and private life.

Major Events

late 7th century – early 6th century BC: The Tyrrhenians were defeated by the Romans led by Tarquinius after a nine-year-long war. After this defeat, the Tyrrhenians surrendered to the Romans under any conditions. They were allowed to continue to practice their old customs in exchange for Roman sovereignty over their cities.

540 BC: There was a battle between the Phokaians and Etruscans off the the coast of the Corsican town Alalia. There were 60 Phokaian ships against 60 Carthaginian and 60 Caeretan ships. The Phokaians won, but they were so crippled from the battle that they had to evacuate Corsica regardless. The Etruscans now had no rivals in the northern Tyrrhenian Sea.

510 BC: The Tarquins were expelled from Rome and the Tyrrhenians began to slowly lose control of their southern territories.

504 BC: The Tyrrhenians suffered a major defeat at Aricia. Around this same time, they also struggled against invading Celts from the north.

474 BC: The Tyrrhenians naval supremacy in the Tyrrhenian Sea was lost after they were defeated in a battle off of Cumae by the Syracusans and the Cumaeans.

453 BC: The Syracusans raided the coast near Caere to confront Tyrrhenian piracy. They installed themselves on Elba, looting cities and capturing many slaves.

413 BC: The Etruscans aided the Athenian attack on Syracuse during the Peloponnesian War.

c. 284-282 BC: The Boii and Etruscans attacked the Romans on two separate occasions before being totally defeated by the Romans led by Quintus Aemilius Papus.

224 BC: A large force of Etruscan infantry and cavalry came to Rome’s aid as it was threatened by an approaching Celtic army.

Relationships

Trade

The Tyrrhenians traded mineral resources with peoples in the eastern Mediterranean (Greece, Phoenicia, and beyond) in return for luxury goods. There were mass markets in Etruria for vases from Corinth and Athens.

Carthage and Etruria had a close trade relationship that was maintained by treaties.

Conflict

Sea battles between the Tyrrhenians and the Greeks are known to have occurred from at least the 8th century BC onward. At Olympia and Delphi, 8th century helmets from defeated Villanovans were dedicated by Greeks. According to Plutarch, the Tyrrhenians were once driven from Attica and Sparta for kidnapping women from these regions.

In the waters off southern France near the Phokaian colony that would become Marseilles, Etruscans and Phokaians both competed and cooperated. Tensions came to a head in a sea battle between the Phokaians and Etruscans of Caere allied with Carthaginians in 540 BC. Caeretans massacred Phokaian prisoners via stoning.

The Tyrrhenians were involved in many military exploits against the Romans. When the Latins were resisting conquest by Tarquinius, king of Rome, the Tyrrhenians offered reinforcements to the Latins. During a major battle, the Tyrrhenian wing of the army was slaughtered by the Romans.

The war between the Tyrrhenians and the Romans lasted nine years. During their last battle, the Tyrrhenians were supposed to get aid from the Sabines, whose land they were marching through. However, the Romans arrived earlier than expected and no aid was sent. The resulting battle was a great victory for Tarquinius against the Tyrrhenians once again.

The Boii sought aid from the Etruscans to march against the Romans near Lake Vladimon in 284 or 283 BC. Most of the Etruscans in the army were killed in the attempt. The following year, the Boii and Etruscans joined forces again, but were utterly defeated by Roman consul Quintus Aemilius Papus. As a result, they sent an embassy to make a treaty with Rome. Eight years later, when a large army of Gaesatae (Celts) infantry and chariots was advancing through Etruria to attack Rome, 50,000 Etruscan troops came to Rome’s assistance.

The Syracusians defeated the Tyrrhenians in 453 BC and looted their cities. They, led by Hieron the tyrant of Syracuse, defeated the Tyrrhenians prior to this, in 474 BC, when allied with the Cumaeans. Hieron dedicated an Etruscan helmet at Olympia inscribed: “Hieron, son of Deinomenes and the Syracusans and Zeus: Tyrsenians from Kyma (Cumae).” After losing these important maritime opportunities, the Etruscans took control of inland towns like Perugia, Bologna, and cities in the Po Valley such as Mantua. This movement inland caused collisions between Etruscan colonizers in the Po Valley and Celtic invaders crossing the Alps. The Syracusans and Tyrrhenians again clashed in 453 BC when the Syracusans raided the coast near Caere, installed themselves on Elba, and captured many slaves. The Tyrrhenians held a grudge about this for decades, eventually aiding the Athenian attack on Syracuse in 413 BC.

As Tyrrhenian power weakened, the Gauls and Celts seized land from the Tyrrhenians. According to Polybius, the Celts and the Etruscans interacted often and the Celts were jealous of the Etruscans’ lands. This led to a Celtic attack that expelled the Etruscans from the plain of the Po.

Material Culture

Etruscan art is defined as an Italo-Graeco-oriental syncretism. Its strong influences from the East began with trading with the Phoenicians and Greeks in the 8th and 7th centuries BC. The Greek colonization of Ischia in the 8th century BC was a major catalyst in the Greek-Etruscan trade network.

A fasces was a single-bladed axe with a bundle of wooden rods bound with leather straps that was used as a status marker in Etruscan culture. The oldest known fasces was found in the Tuscan town of Vetulonia and dates to 630-625 BC. It was made completely of iron and found in a male burial that included fragments of a chariot harness and rich Orientalizing grave goods, indicating this was a high status individual. Beginning in the late 4th century BC, representations of lictors, usually in pairs, bearing fasces have been found, most commonly in tomb paintings of processions and banquets.

The Tyrrhenians were attributed with the invention of the salpinx, a military instrument like a trumpet. They also had outstanding metalwork.

Some of the finest known Greek vases have actually been found in Etruscan tombs. Etruscans made their own versions of Proto-Corinthian pottery as links formed to Ionia and Corinth. They also imitated black- and red-figure pottery from Corinth and Athens. The Etruscans favored Archaic art styles over Classical.

The elites of Tarquinia and its neighbors used the fine goods of the eastern Mediterranean as symbols of their power and status. Ostrich eggs from Phoenicians, ivory and gold plaques with sphinxes, panthers, lotuses, and other Near Eastern motifs, as well as faience and glass objects with Egyptian themes are all examples of these objects.

Architecture

The Etruscans were not known for conformity or predictability in their architecture, but there are some common elements used for Etruscan temples. They often had a raised podium made out of cut stone blocks with steps at the short ends. This podium may have been used to make the temple more visible, or it could be to account for the uneven terrain and create a level platform for the temple proper. These platforms or podia could consist of several layers of stone on the outside with supporting walls or rubble occupying the center. A rounded molding marked the transition between the podium and the temple’s foundation. The earliest example of this round molding is in the S. Omobono below the Capitoline Hill in Rome that dates to the 6th century BC. Other examples through the 4th century BC can be found in Satricum, Pyrgi, Ardea, and Tarquinia. While round moldings were not always present in temple architecture, a low podium marked with larged, curved rounds became the hallmark type of molding in Etrusco-Italic architecture in the 6th-4th centuries BC. They were seen in temples  as well as altars, with examples in Lavinium, Orvieto, and Fiesole.

The largest of all Etruscan temples outside of Rome is the Ara della Regina temple from the early 4th century BC in Tarquinia. It was located on the city hill and shows multiple phases that emphasize its dominant location and increasingly elaborate plan and decoration. It had striking terracotta decoration of horses and its podium was marked by large, highly visible Etruscan round moldings along the sides and front.

Tombs

Around 650 BC, the elites of Etruscan cities like Tarquinia and Caere began creating grand tombs inspired by Eastern styles. These featured sculpted winged creatures to protect the tombs, which were designed to imitate the houses of the living. The earliest monumental tombs in Tarquinia were above ground, broad, and circular with peaked roofs and tufa slabs above the entrances that portrayed gods and spirits of the afterlife. These were inspired by tombs in Lydia, Lycia, and Cyprus. From the mid-6th century BC on, painted tombs of elite families became a a Tarquinian specialty. Some early tombs were so strongly inspired by Greek Ionian art that it is unclear whether the craftsmen were Ionian or Etruscan. Some tomb paintings from Caere and Tarquinia are Greek not only in style, but also subject matter, since they feature scenes from Greek mythology. Scenes of feasting, hunting and fishing, games, and portraits of the deceased were also common in Etruscan tombs.

The Francois Tomb in Vulci (Velch) near the Fiora River dates to the 4th century BC and is famous for its wall paintings depicting mythical and semi-mythical scenes. Its layout consisted of a long passageway from its entrance in a cliff face that led to a central atrium, from which smaller chambers branched. One wall painting in the atrium shows a scene from the Theban myth, depicting Etokles and Polyneikes in the moment of killing each other with swords. The characters are depicted nude, and blood spurts from them. Another painting in this area shows the sacrifice of Trojan prisoners during the funeral of Patroclus in the Iliad. Greek soldiers, nude, kill the Trojans with swords. Charon is also present in this scene, holding a hammer, and Vanth, a winged female Etruscan messenger of death is depicted as well. A third painting depicts a battle between the Etruscans of Vulci and their rivals from the Etruscan towns Volsinii and Sovana and Romans. Several figures have names written next to them, featuring Roman names and Etruscan names. Three of the named figures are Macstrna, who may have been Rome’s legendary second Etruscan king, and Caile and Avle Vipinas. A painting near the doorway depicts a man named Vel Saties, who may be the occupant of the tomb. He is dressed in a dark blue cloak embroidered with dancing nude male figures holding shields and wears a laurel crown. He may have been a magistrate or reader of omens. He is accompanies by a dwarf named Arnza, who is holding a bird on a string and is poised to release it, perhaps for Vel to interpret its flight. The bird could also symbolize Vel’s imminent passage into the afterlife.

 

References

Abulafia, David. 2011. The Great Sea : A Human History of the Mediterranean. Cary: Oxford University Press USA – OSO. Accessed April 10, 2023. ProQuest Ebook Central.

Brennan, T. Corey. The Fasces : A History of Ancient Rome’s Most Dangerous Political Symbol.  New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2023. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&scope=site&db=nlebk&db=nlabk&AN=3374513.

Cartwright, Mark. “Francois Tomb.” World History Encyclopedia. May 2023. https://www.worldhistory.org/Francois_Tomb/.

Diodorus Siculus. Library of History, Volume I: Books 1-2.34. Translated by C. H. Oldfather. Loeb Classical Library 279. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1933.

Dionysius of Halicarnassus. Roman Antiquities, Volume I: Books 1-2. Translated by Earnest Cary. Loeb Classical Library 319. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1937.

Edlund-Berry, Ingrid. “The Language of Etrusco-Italic Architecture: New Perspectives on Tuscan Temples.” American Journal of Archaeology 112, no. 3 (2008): 441–47. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20627482.

Howatson, M. The Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Oxford, United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 2011.

Plutarch. Lives, Volume IX: Demetrius and Antony. Pyrrhus and Gaius Marius. Translated by Bernadotte Perrin. Loeb Classical Library 101. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1920.

Plutarch. Moralia, Volume IV: Roman Questions. Greek Questions. Greek and Roman Parallel Stories. On the Fortune of the Romans. On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander. Were the Athenians More Famous in War or in Wisdom?. Translated by Frank Cole Babbitt. Loeb Classical Library 305. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1936.

Polybius. The Histories, Volume I: Books 1-2. Translated by W. R. Paton. Revised by F. W. Walbank, Christian Habicht. Loeb Classical Library 128. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010.

Strabo. Geography, Volume I: Books 1-2. Translated by Horace Leonard Jones. Loeb Classical Library 49. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1917.

“Τυρσηνός.” Logeion. October, 2022. https://logeion.uchicago.edu/%CE%A4%CF%85%CF%81%CF%83%CE%B7%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82.

Van der Meer, L.B. “Etruscan Origins: Language and Archaeology.” BABesch 79 (2004): 51-57. https://www.academia.edu/8283111/Etruscan_origins_Language_and_archaeology_BABESCH_79_2004_51_57.