What is Siberia?

In your history and geography classes, you have probably learned about explorers and their so-called “geographical discoveries:” Christopher Columbus and the Americas, Vasco de Gama and India, James Cook and Australia, to name a few. While these explorers are often credited with “discovering” lands, many of these regions were already inhabited by Indigenous peoples. In other words, the “newly found” lands were often only new to the explorers and their respective countries of origin.  

In this lesson, you will expand your knowledge of conquest by focusing on the exploration and colonization of Siberia. But, first, we need to answer the question – what is Siberia? 

This lesson will introduce:

1. the geographical position of Siberia and the challenges in identifying its borders;
2. theories surrounding the origin of the word “Siberia;”
3. the early period of colonization of Siberia from central Russia/Muscovy.

 

Task 1

Before reading the text below, write down: 

• What comes to mind when you hear “Siberia;” 

• What you have learned or heard about the region. 

After reading the text, compare what you wrote with the information presented in the lesson. 

 

What is Siberia?

You might have seen Siberia on screen depicted in American cult classics like Rocky IV (director Sylvester Stallone) or GoldenEye (director Martin Campbell), a film in the James Bond series:

 

Oftentimes shown as a frozen wasteland or a mysterious distant land, Siberia is frequently mischaracterized by its harsh climate and historical use as a place of banishment. However, the real Siberia is far more complex and fascinating, with its rich cultural heritage, diverse ecosystems, and resilient communities that have thrived amidst the challenges of this vast and stunningly beautiful region. 

But what exactly is Siberia?

Defining Siberia is not as straightforward as it might seem. In the west, it begins with the Ural Mountains, but even Dima Arzyutov and I, two individuals from Siberia, do not agree upon where it ends in the east. Some consider Siberia to stretch all the way to the Pacific Ocean, while others draw a line between Siberia and the Far East.  

This distinction can be attributed to modern administrative divisions. The Siberian Federal District is one of Russia’s eight federal districts, but it does not cover all of what may be considered Siberia. This leads to some differentiating Siberia from the Far East region which is located in the eastmost part of the country.  

 

♦ Federal district – a large administrative region that groups together several smaller federal subjects (regions, provinces, etc.).

 

 

The origin of the word “Siberia” is similarly inconclusive. Some scholars believe that the word comes from one of the Turkic languages, which were spoken in the region even before Russian colonization. Another theory links the name to the Sibir Khanate, a historical state in Western Siberia, with its capital named Sibir, which Russian colonizers might have adopted. Some scholars propose a Mongolic origin, from the word “Shibir” or “Shiber,” meaning “swamp” or “wetland,” reflecting the region’s geographical features. However, the precise meaning of the word remains unclear. 

Here are some comparisons to give a sense of its vastness: 

1. One can fit one and a half United States into Siberia. Or if you want to measure in Texases, almost 19 Texases can fit into Siberia.  
2. Looking internationally, we can place two Australias into Siberia. 
3. Alternatively, the entire European Union could fit into Siberia nearly three times. 
4. Even Canada, the second biggest country in the world after Russia, is still smaller than Siberia.  

To say that Siberia is vast is an understatement. The most iconic way to traverse Siberia is via the Trans-Siberian Railway, which stretches from Moscow in the west to Vladivostok on the Pacific coast. It is the longest railway line in the world. The journey takes about 7 days to complete. Or if you choose to take a flight instead, you can take a direct flight from Moscow to Vladivostok, which takes about 8 to 9 hours. This is similar to flying from Miami, Florida, to Anchorage, Alaska. By the way, did you know that until 1867 Alaska was a part of Siberia? 

With that said, Siberia is not a monolith. It is home to numerous Indigenous groups speaking diverse and mutually unintelligible languages (see the map). On the western border of the region, Nenets Indigenous communities live, and their languages belong to the Samoyedic group of the Uralic language family. Their neighbor is the Mansi language. These two Siberian languages are historically connected to some national European languages such as Finnish, Estonian, and Hungarian. Despite the long distance from the English language and English-speaking communities, we use at least one Nenets word in our everyday life: “parka,” meaning a hooded jacket. In the Nenets language, it also means a traditional hooded jacket made with reindeer fur.

♦ Indigenous groups – original inhabitants of a region, who predate colonial or external influences.

On the border between Siberia (or already the Far East) and the U.S., Chukchi, Asian Inuit (also known under the colonial name as Eskimo), Korean, and Itelmen communities live. Their languages belong to the Chukotko-Kamchatkan (Chukchi, Koryak, and Itelmen) and Inuit-Yupik-Unangan (Asian Inuit) language families. The southern edge of Siberia, which stretches along the Russian borders with Kazakhstan, Mongolia, and China, is also very complex in terms of language diversity. These are Turkic and Mongolian languages, which belong to the Altai language macrofamily. In the eastern part of the southern border, various languages belong to the Manchu-Tungus language family. In their easternmost part the Indigenous languages have been in long-term contacts with the Japanese language. In the English language, we use the Tungus loanword “shamanism” where we describe Indigenous religious practices in different parts of the world. Apart from these, there are a few language isolates: Ket (in the lower Yenisei River), Nivkh (in the lower Amur River) and Ainu (islands of Kuril and Sakhalin; an extinct language).

Watch this video to learn more about the language landscape of Siberia:

 

This already remarkable diversity is even more complex in reality due to contacts between different Indigenous languages and their interactions with Russian, which has been the dominant language in the region since the 17th century. This dominance, along with various political, social, economic, and cultural factors, has led many Indigenous languages to the brink of extinction or even complete extinction.

The lives of Indigenous communities were also affected by Russia’s eastward expansion, which began with the first attempts of Tsar Ivan III to take control of the Ural territories inhabited by Finno-Ugric-speaking Indigenous communities. These communities had their own chiefdoms and were able to resist expansion from the west. Although the relations between these chiefdoms and Muscovy were rather unstable, knowledge about Siberian communities and the region’s resources existed in Moscow. Some trader families established close economic ties with the communities living in the Urals.

In the late 16th century, Tsar Ivan the Terrible initiated the Russian conquest of Siberia, driven by a desire to access the region’s vast natural resources, such as furs, which were later supplemented and eventually replaced by minerals, oil, and gas. Fur, in particular, was incredibly lucrative in the 17th century. In both domestic and foreign markets, the lush pelts from the Siberian taiga were as valuable as gold and silver. In fact, Russians often referred to them as “soft gold.” It is estimated that in the 1640s, about one-third of the total state revenues came from Siberian pelts. 

Russia’s political and economic domination of Siberia and the Far East increased with each new fort and church. The newly created cities and structures were governed by administrators appointed from Moscow. Such governance is an example of colonial rule, where distant territories are managed by officials from the colonizing power, often without considering the needs or wishes of the local and Indigenous peoples. Not only did the expansion disrupt the lifestyles of Indigenous peoples but it also led to the destruction of fur-bearing animal populations like sea otters and minks.  

In the 18th and 19th centuries, Russia’s eastward expansion reached Kamchatka, the Chukchi Peninsula, Alaska, and even extended south to California and other Pacific regions. However, we will focus on Siberia. 

The early colonization of Siberia followed many routes. Some northern territories were initially colonized by the Pomor people, a cultural group in northwestern Russia whose language and culture remain distinct from those of central and southern territories. By boat, the Pomors were able to reach the Siberian Arctic shores as early as the end of the 16th century. However, the terrestrial colonization of Siberia is firmly associated with the name of Ermak (Yermak), also known as Ermak Timofeyevich. He was a Cossack who, along with a brigade of other Cossacks, was hired by the wealthy Russian trader family, the Stroganovs, to fight against the Khanate of Sibir, a Muslim state that controlled the Urals and part of Western Siberia. The colonial war between the expanding Russian trade territories and the local states marked the official beginning of the colonization of Siberia. 

It is important to note that the vast territory of Siberia was sparsely populated by various Indigenous groups, whom we now know as the Khanty, Mansi, Evenki, Nenets, Sakha/Yakuts, and many others. They typically lived as hunters, gatherers, and fishermen, with some practicing reindeer and horse herding. Politically, Siberia was not a unified entity but a mosaic of tribal territories. Some areas were under the loose control of the aforementioned Siberian Khanate, a successor state to the Mongol Empire. It was ruled by Prince (or, in the local Turkic language, Khan) Kuchum. Kuchum sought to expand his influence and spread Islam among some Indigenous peoples, creating a degree of political and religious tension in the region. 

Ermak and his Cossack brigade led the Russian conquest of Siberia in the late 16th century. Ermak’s forces faced significant challenges, including harsh weather, difficult terrain, and resistance from Indigenous groups and the forces of Kuchum. Despite these obstacles, Ermak’s use of firearms and strategic alliances with local groups gave him a critical advantage. 

In 1582, Ermak’s forces defeated Kuchum Khan’s army at the Battle of Chuvash Cape on the Irtysh River, marking a turning point in the conquest of Siberia. Following this victory, Ermak continued to push deeper into Siberia, which opened the way for further Russian expansion eastward, leading to the eventual colonization and integration of Siberia into the Russian state.

During Ermak’s conquest of Siberia, the Indigenous peoples faced numerous challenges, including the imposition of yasak (a fur tribute), which forced them into the fur trade and disrupted their traditional economies. This period also saw significant displacement as Russian settlers and military forces encroached on Indigenous lands, leading to loss of territory and traditional ways of life. Population decline was a major consequence, driven by violent conflicts, overhunting, and the introduction of diseases to which the Indigenous peoples had no immunity. Cultural assimilation efforts intensified, as the Russians sought to integrate the native populations into their empire, often at the expense of Indigenous languages and customs. 

♦ Settler – a person who moves to a new area to establish a permanent residence, often in regions already inhabited by Indigenous people.

In the next lessons of the module, we will examine the history of the 18th to the early 21st centuries. Here, we will briefly mention the significant transformation of Russian colonization in the region. This transformation began with Ermak’s rapid conquest and evolved into a slower but aggressive integration of Siberia into the Russian state by the church and government. Our reflections will focus on these transformations and the responses by Indigenous and local communities. With the October Revolution and subsequent Civil Wars, Siberia turned “red,” becoming a vast laboratory for state experiments—from supporting Indigenous sovereignty claims in the 1920s to aggressive industrial development in the 1960s-80s and one of the major sources of gas that has fueled not only the Soviet but also many European economies up until recently. 

In conclusion, it is important to note that, like Western empires, Russia was seen as a mix of European regions and a vast colonial domain in Asia. With the Urals now serving as the boundary between Europe and Asia, Siberia became distinctly Asiatic, separate from European Russia. Russians began to view Siberia as a non-European, exotic land, which contributed to shaping Russia’s European identity. Siberia’s Indigenous populations were compared to Native Americans, highlighting their contrast with Russian settlers. This historical view of Siberia as Asian persists today. Russia is seen as neither fully European nor Asian but rather as Eurasian. 

 

Task 2

Open this interactive map of Siberian regions. Which understanding of Siberia does it represent? What factor contributes to this view? 

Click on each region to learn about it and click on the video in the right-hand corner to watch it. To return to the map, click on the home icon.  

Extension activity (can be modified based on the class objectives):  

In pairs or small groups, select one region of Siberia and conduct an internet search to explore how the topic you are studying presents itself in that area. Below you will find sample ideas for different classes: 

• Anthropology: Research the Indigenous communities in your selected region. Create a report, identifying how modern issues affect the community. 

• Art: Find examples of traditional and contemporary art from your selected region and analyze them. Present your analysis to the class. 

• Dance: Choose 1-2 Indigenous communities living in your selected region. Find, analyze, and compare their traditional dances. Identify its cultural significance. 

• Film: Identify films that were made in or about your selected region. Watch a film and prepare a review or analysis of how it represents the region’s culture and history. 

• Geography: Study the geographical features of your selected region. Create a detailed map and a report on how the geography impacts the local economy, climate, and lifestyle. 

• History: Research the historical events that have shaped your selected region. Develop a timeline and a presentation detailing significant historical milestones and their impacts. 

• Linguistics: Explore the languages spoken in your selected region. Write a paper on the linguistic diversity, including any endangered languages, and the efforts being made to preserve them. 

• Literature: Find and read literature or poetry from your selected region. Write a review or create a literary analysis of how the region is depicted through its literature. 

• Music: Discover traditional and modern music from your selected region. Create a playlist and write an accompanying essay on the characteristics of the region’s music. 

• Religion: Research the religious practices and beliefs in your selected region. Create a comparative presentation of how different religions coexist and influence the local culture. 

• Sciences: Investigate the environmental issues/ecosystem/climate/flora and fauna/agriculture in your selected region. Create a report or presentation. 

• Social Sciences: Study the social structure and issues within your selected region. Conduct a case study on topics such as migration, urbanization, or social policies and their effects on the population. 

• Women’s Studies: Explore the role and status of women in your selected region. Create a report on the challenges and achievements of women in that area, focusing on historical and contemporary perspectives. 

Task 3

Read Chapter 1: The Conquest of Siberia: Ermak’s Expedition of 1581-1585 and Its Aftermath in Brian Bonhomme’s Russian exploration, from Siberia to space: A history. Identify major events and create a timeline. 

 

Resources

 

Academic Articles

Bassin, M. (1991). Inventing Siberia: Visions of the Russian East in the Early Nineteenth Century. The American Historical Review, 96(3), 763-794.

 

Films with English Subtitles

Siberiade. (1977). Director: Andrei Mikhalkov-Konchalovsky

• Episodes 1 and 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6P5Nf7xzXS0&t
• Episodes 3 and 4: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QNNKHYzeuj4 

 

Fairy Tales With English Subtitles

How the Sun and the Moon made Peace (Taymyr)

Adventures of Fox (Evenki)

Raven the Trickster (Itelmen)

Naughty Bear (Sakha/Yakut)

Bear’s Stories (Evenki)

The Frog and the Ants (Altai)

Fox Tricks (Khanty)

Pumasipa (Mansi)

Mergen (Nanai)

 

Fiction

A Dream in Polar Fog by Yuri Rytkheu

Farewell to Matyora by Valentin Rasputin

Live and Remember by Valentin Rasputin

Sannikov Land by Vladimir Obruchev 

Stories from a Siberian Village by Vasiliy Shukshin

 

Music Artists

Otyken is a Siberian Indigenous music band known for blending traditional Siberian sounds with modern musical elements. The band members come from various Indigenous groups in Siberia, including the Khakass, Chulyms, and Evenki.

Namgar – An international ethno collective, fusing traditional Buryat and Mongolian music with elements of pop, jazz, and folk.

Theatre Baikal – Buryat national collective of artists and dancers. 

Yat-Kha – A Tuvan band led by Albert Kuvezin, known for blending traditional Tuvan throat singing (khoomei) with rock music.

Huun-Huur-Tu – A world-renowned Tuvan ensemble that performs traditional throat singing and Siberian music.

Chyskyyrai – A Sakha (Yakut) singer who combines traditional Sakha music with modern influences, creating a unique sound that honors her cultural roots.

 

Non-fiction

Bonhomme B. (2014) Russian Exploration, from Siberia to Space: A History. McFarland.

Diment, G., and Y. Slezkine, eds. (1993). Between Heaven and Hell: The Myth of Siberia in Russian Culture. Palgrave Macmillan.

Forsyth, J. (1994). A History of the Peoples of Siberia: Russia’s North Asian colony 1581-1990. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hartley, J. M. (2014). Siberia: A History of the People. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.

Lincoln, W. B. (2007). The Conquest of a Continent: Siberia and the Russians. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.

Rasputin, V. (1996). Siberia, Siberia. Northwestern University Press.

Slezkine, Y. (1994). Arctic mirrors: Russia and the Small Peoples of the North. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Stolberg, E.-M., ed. (2005). The Siberian Saga: A History of Russia’s Wild East. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang.

Wood, A. (2011). Russia’s Frozen frontier: A History of Siberia and the Russian Far East 1581 – 1991. London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic.