A Land of Knowledge?

Throughout the lessons, you have explored the multifaceted nature of Siberia, from its geographical boundaries to its diverse demographic landscape and the evolving significance of its natural resources over time. In this lesson, we will delve into Siberia as a source of knowledge. We will specifically highlight notable concepts and discoveries that originated in Siberia and have gained global recognition. 

Task 1 

By the end of the lesson, you will know some major discoveries made in the areas of: 

  1. politics;
  2. religion;
  3. environment;
  4. palaeontology;
  5. archaeology.

Politics

Prince Peter Kropotkin (1842-1921)

What have we learned and can continue to learn from Siberia and its peoples? While we cannot cover all discoveries in this lesson, we will focus on several prominent ones in the areas of politics, anthropology, religion, and the environment. Let us begin with politics. 

You have probably heard of anarchism. These days, the words anarchy and anarchism are used loosely and often not accurately. When Peter Kropotkin, a prominent Russian geographer, set off on an expedition to Siberia in the late 19th century, he did not foresee the profound impact it would have on his political philosophy. Through his observations of Siberian Indigenous communities, Kropotkin noted the cooperative and communal ways in which they lived, which starkly contrasted with the competitive, hierarchical societies he had known. 

Kropotkin spent several years in Siberia, where he studied the natural environment and the social relations of the Indigenous peoples, particularly the Evenki and Buryat communities. He observed the Evenki in the regions of the Lena River basin and the Central Siberian Plateau. The Evenki are part of the Tungusic peoples, known for their nomadic reindeer herding and hunting lifestyle. Similarly, he encountered the Buryat people around Lake Baikal and the surrounding Buryat Republic. The Buryat are part of the Mongolic peoples, known for their pastoral nomadism and Buddhism-influenced culture.

Despite their different ethnic affiliations, with the Evenki being Tungusic and the Buryat being Mongolic, Kropotkin observed similarities in their social relations, particularly in their reliance on mutual aid and cooperation. For example, he saw how the Evenki organized their hunting and fishing activities collectively, sharing the resources and ensuring that everyone in the community had enough to eat. The Buryat, on the other hand, practiced communal land use and livestock herding, where decisions were made through consensus rather than imposed by a central authority.

Kropotkin also noted the relatively egalitarian relationships between men and women in these communities. He observed that women played crucial roles in the economic and social life of the community, participating in decision-making processes and holding significant influence. This observation further reinforced his belief in the feasibility of a society based on equality and cooperation. 

These experiences in Siberia deeply influenced Kropotkin’s development of anarchist theory, emphasizing mutual aid and voluntary cooperation as foundations for social organization. Kropotkin’s idea of anarchism was not about chaos or disorder, as the term is often misunderstood today. Instead, he envisioned a society where people voluntarily cooperated without the need for a coercive state. He believed that human beings are naturally inclined towards mutual aid and cooperation, and that these tendencies could be harnessed to create a more just and equitable society. 

Kropotkin argued that these principles, observed in nature and human societies, were essential for creating a just and equitable world. His writings, such as Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, drew heavily from his Siberian experiences, presenting a compelling case for anarchism as a viable political and social system. He challenged the dominant Darwinian view of “survival of the fittest” by showing that cooperation and mutual support are just as important, if not more so, for the survival and progress of species, including humans. 

Task 2  

Read the Introduction to Peter Kropotkin’s Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution, followed by excerpts from Chapter 3 (pp. 97 – 107) and Chapter 4 (pp. 138 – 141), which draw on Kropotkin’s observations of the Siberian peoples.  

  • What does he mean by mutual aid and why does he advocate for it?  
  • What observations of Siberian peoples does he make that support his argument? 

 

Religion

Now, let us shift our focus from politics to religion, another area where Siberia offers profound insights. One of the most significant religious traditions to emerge from this region is shamanism, a practice that has captivated the attention of scholars and spiritual seekers worldwide. 

Evenki shaman Fyodor Poligus, (c) Alexei Makarenko, The Russian Ethnographic Museum in Saint Petersburg

The word ‘shamanism’ originates from the Evenki language, a Siberian Indigenous community we have discussed several times in our lessons. Adopted by travelers as early as the 18th century, the term began its global intellectual journey. Through discussions among scholars from various disciplines and regions, as well as comparative analyses, it is now widely agreed that shamanism is characterized by animistic beliefs, where natural elements, birds, fish, and animals are seen as living beings with which a shaman can communicate. Unlike organized religions such as Christianity, Islam, or Buddhism, shamanism does not have a central doctrine or a formal structure. Lately, we have observed some local initiatives to institutionalize shamanism, even organizing it as one of the world religions. Historically, however, shamanism has been a collection of practices and beliefs that vary widely among different cultures. While shamanism is deeply rooted in the cultures of Siberian Indigenous peoples, the core elements of shamanism—such as the belief in a spirit world, the role of the shaman as a mediator, and the use of rituals to interact with spirits—are found in many Indigenous cultures around the world, including the Americas and Southeast Asia.

A central practice in shamanism involves a shaman entering trance states to communicate with the spirit world. Shamans achieve these altered states of consciousness through rhythmic drumming, vigorous dancing, or repetitive chanting. In trance, they seek guidance from the spirit world.  

For example, by enhancing their healing powers in trance and using natural remedies, shamans address both physical and spiritual ailments. In healing, they follow a holistic approach, which underscores the interconnectedness of the mind, body, and spirit, offering a perspective that contrasts with the segmented approach of Western medicine. 

Another significant aspect of shamanism is its profound connection to nature. Shamans often engage with animal spirits, plants, and natural elements, believing that all aspects of the natural world are alive. This deep respect for nature teaches us the importance of living in harmony with our environment. For instance, Buryat shamans perform rituals to honor natural spirits and ensure the fertility of the land, reflecting an intimate relationship with the ecosystem that supports their way of life.

In addition to their spiritual functions, shamans often play crucial roles within their communities, serving not only as healers but also as spiritual leaders, mediators, and advisors. The Evenki shamans, for example, guide their communities through important rituals, resolve conflicts, and provide counsel based on their spiritual insights.  

The understanding of shamanism has been significantly enriched by the work of scholars and explorers who ventured into Siberia to study its Indigenous cultures. Scholars in collaboration with local communities continue to document Siberian shamanistic rituals, conceptualizations, and social practices, providing invaluable insights into this spiritual tradition. 

One of the most famous scholars in the study of shamanism in the West was Mircea Eliade, whose research highlighted the universal elements of shamanism, such as the ecstatic journey, the use of drums, and the shaman’s role as a healer and mediator. His comparative approach showed the similarities between shamanistic practices across different cultures, helping to establish a broader understanding of this spiritual phenomenon.  Despite its profound impact on shamanism studies, his book, ‘Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy,’ sparked heated debates among anthropologists and historians of religion.

Task 3

Read Chapters 1 – 5 (pp. 3 – 176) in Shamanism: Archaic Techniques of Ecstasy by Mircea Eliade – one of the most known authors on shamanism in the West, who also draws on the ethnographic descriptions of Siberian shamans.

  • How does Eliade define a shaman, and what are the primary roles and functions of a shaman in their community? 
  • What are the primary techniques that shamans use to achieve altered states of consciousness according to Eliade? How do these techniques facilitate communication with the spirit world? 
  • What symbolic objects and rituals are commonly used in shamanistic practices? 
  • How does Eliade compare shamanistic practices across different cultures and regions? 
  • What does Eliade suggest about the historical development and evolution of shamanism? 
  • What dual roles do shamans play in their communities according to Eliade?

Extension questions: 

  • Why have scholars been critical of Eliade’s research on shamanism?
  • How does Eliade’s concept of ecstasy differ from or align with other religious or spiritual experiences?
  • How does shamanism compare with organized religions such as Christianity, Islam, or Buddhism in terms of structure, beliefs, and practices?
  • In what ways do shamanistic healing practices differ from modern medical practices? How can the holistic approach of shamanistic healing be integrated into contemporary health care? 
  • How has reading Eliade’s work changed your understanding of shamanism and its practices?
  • What aspects of shamanism do you find most intriguing or relevant to today’s world? 

 

Environment

In lesson 3, you learned about Siberia’s resources, climate, and environment. Now we will dive deeper into the topics of climate research, biodiversity, and climate change.   

Siberia with its vast and diverse landscapes, including tundra, taiga, steppe, and mountain ranges is a productive area for environmental research. Let us begin by reviewing the region’s climate. As you remember from lesson 1, Siberia is often imagined as an endless, frozen land; however, there are a number of distinct climates that influence ecosystems and weather patterns of different parts of the region.

In South Siberia, which includes regions like the Altai Mountains and Lake Baikal, the average temperatures vary significantly between winter and summer due to the region’s continental climate. A typical winter temperature ranges from -4 to –22F, whereas summers can be between 68 and 87F. The temperate climate of South Siberia allows for rich biodiversity and complex ecological interactions. For example, Lake Baikal, the world’s deepest and oldest freshwater lake hosts a number of endemic species, meaning species that are found nowhere else on Earth. Examples include the Baikal seal (nerpa) and the omul fish. Studying these endemics helps scientists understand evolutionary processes and ecological interactions in isolated environments. For instance, the Baikal seal’s adaptation to freshwater provides insights into how mammals evolve in such unique habitats. 

Permafrost in Siberia, (c) hi-news.ru

Permafrost provides a unique environment for studying the adaptations of both plant and animal species to extreme cold. Research on tundra vegetation, such as dwarf shrubs and mosses, reveals how these plants survive and thrive in nutrient-poor, frozen soils. Additionally, permafrost is a significant store of organic carbon, making it a critical component in understanding the global carbon cycle. When permafrost thaws, it releases greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming. By studying the rate and extent of permafrost thaw, scientists can better predict future greenhouse gas emissions and their effects on global temperatures. This research is vital for developing strategies to mitigate the impacts of permafrost thawing and manage the associated risks to infrastructure and ecosystems. 

Climate change is having a profound impact on Siberia. The region is warming at a rate more than twice the global average. This rapid warming is causing widespread thawing of permafrost, which has several critical implications. Firstly, as permafrost thaws, it destabilizes the ground, leading to the collapse of structures, roads, and pipelines. This phenomenon, known as “thermokarst,” poses significant challenges to infrastructure and human settlements. Secondly, the release of stored carbon from thawing permafrost exacerbates global climate change, creating a feedback loop. Increased greenhouse gas emissions lead to further warming and more permafrost thawing. Lastly, changes in the Siberian climate affect local ecosystems and biodiversity. For example, alterations in the timing and extent of seasonal ice cover impact species that rely on these conditions, such as reindeer and migratory birds. 

Moreover, Siberian fires, particularly in the taiga, have become more frequent due to climate change, with many ignited by lightning strikes during dry thunderstorms or human activities like agriculture and logging. These fires can be extremely intense, often occurring in remote areas that are difficult to control and monitor. The vastness and remoteness of the Siberian landscape present unique challenges for firefighting efforts, with limited resources available for effective management. If we compare Siberian fires to Californian fires, the former, on average, cover approximately 24 times more area than the latter. This immense scale of fires highlights the urgent need for effective climate adaptation and mitigation strategies. 

One potential solution lies in leveraging the traditional knowledge and practices of Indigenous peoples. Indigenous and local communities of Siberia, such as Evenki, Nenets, and Sakha (or Yakuts), have long-standing and sentient relationships with the environment, as we have briefly discussed regarding shamanism. Their knowledge and practices, in dialogue with the insights from climate and social sciences, significantly advance our understanding and methods of adapting to climate change.

Indigenous and local communities have developed intricate knowledge systems to cope with extreme weather and seasonal changes. For instance, they possess a detailed understanding of animal migration patterns, snow and ice conditions, and sustainable hunting and fishing practices. This expertise allows them to manage their natural resources effectively and maintain ecological balance.

Scholars from natural sciences call that knowledge system “traditional ecological knowledge” (TEK). Although social field scientists criticize the notion of the timelessness of “tradition,” arguing that all human practices evolve and may even radically change over time, it is increasingly recognized as a crucial resource for climate change research and adaptation strategies. By integrating TEK with scientific research, we can develop more effective and culturally appropriate responses to environmental challenges. Indigenous knowledge provides insights that are often overlooked by conventional science, such as subtle changes in the environment and long-term climatic trends observed over generations. This deep connection to the land and detailed environmental understanding are essential for creating adaptive strategies that are resilient and sustainable. 

Task 4

Watch a short video by Greenpeace (2010) about the melting of permafrost in the Nenets Peninsula. How does the permafrost thaw affect the Nenets people? 

Task 5

Read Chapter 5 on TEK in In the Way of Development.  

  • What is TEK? 
  • How does TEK compare to Western approaches to science? 
  • According to McGreggor, can TEK work with sustainable development?

Task 6

Read the 2015 article “Indigenous Siberians solve collective action problems through sharing and traditional knowledge” by John P. Ziker, Joellie Rasmussen, and David A. Nolin about the TEK practices by the Dolgan and the Nganasan of the Taymyr Peninsula in North-Central Siberia. Identify the main practices and issues discussed in the article. 

Ziker, J. P., Rasmussen, J., & Nolin, D. A. (2016). Indigenous Siberians solve collective action problems through sharing and traditional knowledge. Sustainability Science11, 45-55. 

 

Paleontology

You might be surprised to learn that the discipline of paleontology owes a great deal to Siberia, primarily because of the woolly mammoth. The exceptional preservation of its tusks, bones, tissues, fur, and even blood in the Siberian permafrost has made this extinct animal a central focus for paleontologists. Scholars have been amazed not only by the preservation of mammoth remains but also by the fact that this extinct animal coexisted with Homo sapiens sapiens. The last population of mammoths went extinct on the remote Wrangel Island in the Chukchi Sea around 14,000 to 10,000 years ago. This also explains why so many drawings of mammoths appear in ancient rock art across the globe.

Reconstruction of a mammoth by Yakutsk merchant Roman Boltunov based on a frozen carcass he saw in Siberia in 1805, (c) Wikimedia

However, the concept of extinction is far more complex than it may seem. As reflected in Arctic Indigenous folklore, the perfect preservation of mammoth remains has led to the belief that the mammoth is an extant creature according to the traditions of Komi, Nenets, Selkup, Khanty, Mansi, Chukchi, and others. According to these oral traditions, the mammoth remains found on eroded Arctic riverbanks in the springtime suggest that this creature is still alive but lives underground. Moreover, ethnographers and travelers documented stories of Evenki hunters in the 19th century feeding their dogs with… mammoth meat (well, what paleobiologists call adipocere).

Despite the known widespread distribution of mammoths between the late Miocene and the early Holocene, the largest concentration of their remains is in Northern Siberia, including the Arctic islands, the Yamal Peninsula, and especially the northern part of Yakutia. This also academically explains why the mammoth as a species went extinct. Scholars agree that climate change, which led to the massive migration of animals and then to their disappearance, is one of the reasons.

Since the 18th century, when the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences requested full mammoth skeletons and remains to be brought to the capital from Siberia, scholars, with the help of Indigenous guides, have discovered a stellar constellation of whole mammoth corpses and parts, revolutionizing science.

This includes well-known mammoths such as the Adams mammoth (the first found whole woolly mammoth carcass, Yakutsk, 1799), the Berezovo mammoth (the first found whole woolly mammoth corpse in Sakha/Yakutia, 1900), the Taymyr mammoth (a woolly mammoth carcass found on the Taymyr Peninsula, 1948), Dima (a baby mammoth found in the Magadan region, 1977), Masha (a baby mammoth found in Yamal, 1988), Lyuba (a baby mammoth found in Yamal, 2007), Yuka (a baby mammoth found in Sakha/Yakutia, 2010), and Zhenya (a woolly mammoth carcass found on the Taymyr Peninsula, 2012). It is a tradition among paleontologists to name a discovered mammoth after the person who found it.

The discovery of the Dima mammoth was an international sensation, attracting significant attention from scholars, museum curators, and artists during the Cold War. Inspired by the finding of a baby mammoth in Siberia, Soviet cartoonists created the beautiful cartoon “Mother For a Little Mammoth” (1981), with a song that remains well-known to Russian children and adults alike.

The concentration of mammoth remains in Siberia has attracted both “mammoth hunters” and scholars. The former, reminiscent of the Siberian trappers of the 18th and 19th centuries, now “hunt” mammoth tusks and bones to sell on the world market. The latter seek new remains to better understand the “mammoth fauna.” With the development of paleogenetics, scholars from different countries have launched a large project on the de-extinction of the woolly mammoth, which is poised to be one of the most incredible science projects of our time (see recent news about the project). Moreover, the mammoth remains have provided valuable information on the anatomy, diet, and environment of mammoths. Scientists have been able to determine that mammoths had a varied diet consisting mainly of grasses and other vegetation available during the Pleistocene epoch. The analysis of mammoth tusks has also provided insights into their migration patterns and seasonal movements. These findings offer clues about the climatic conditions of the Ice Age and how these large mammals adapted to extreme cold.

The ironic intersection of these two groups, “hunters” and scholars, highlights the fragile border between extinct and extant, as discussed above. It is as if the mammoth itself calls for attention, drawing in those who hunt its remains after thousands of years and those investing all their energy in its reincarnation.

 

Task 7

Watch the film “Genesis 2.0” (2018) and list the reasons why the de-extinction project is important for science and society, as well as the potential harms it may bring.

 

Task 8

Choose one of the known mammoths and write its biography from the time it was discovered, using any reliable sources available online. Address how studying mammoths can help us better understand the history of our planet and climate change.

 

Archaeology

A Denisovian molar (c) Wikimedia

The most groundbreaking archaeological discovery in Siberia in recent times is the identification of the Denisovan hominins. In 2008, a finger bone fragment found in Denisova Cave in the Altai Mountains led to the recognition of a previously unknown human species. Genetic analysis revealed that Denisovans were distinct from both Neanderthals and modern humans, although they interbred with both. This discovery has profound implications for our understanding of human evolution, highlighting the complexity and interbreeding among ancient human populations. Further excavations in the Denisova Cave have uncovered additional bone fragments and tools, providing more insights into the Denisovans’ way of life and their interactions with other human species. For example, the discovery of a Denisovan bracelet made from green chlorite suggests they possessed advanced crafting skills and aesthetic sensibilities. These findings underscore the rich tapestry of human ancestry and migration, challenging previous models that were simpler and more linear. 

However, Siberia has always been incredibly rich in archaeological remains. We can begin with the world-renowned Siberian collection of Peter the Great, filled with truly unique Scytho-Siberian golden artifacts, most of which were found in South Siberia and are displayed in the State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg.

Other crucial archaeological sites in Siberia are Mal’ta and Buret’ near Lake Baikal, dating back to around 24,000 to 15,000 years ago. These Upper Paleolithic sites have produced numerous artifacts, including carved bone and ivory figurines, tools, and evidence of dwelling structures. The Venus figurines from Mal’ta are particularly notable for their intricate designs and are among the earliest known representations of the human form. These artifacts provide valuable insights into the symbolic and artistic expressions of prehistoric humans. The detailed craftsmanship of these figurines suggests that the Mal’ta-Buret’ archaeological culture had a well-developed sense of aesthetics and possibly religious or cultural rituals surrounding fertility or womanhood. The cultural and artistic achievements evident at Mal’ta-Buret’ reveal a sophisticated understanding of their environment and a rich symbolic life. 

The archaeology of the Russian Arctic has enhanced our understanding of the domestication of reindeer. Many archaeologists, thanks to the earliest reindeer harnessing findings in the Yamal Peninsula, believe that this domestication likely occurred in Northwestern Siberia. If reindeer domestication happened between the 4th century BC and the 2nd century AD in the Siberian tundra, then the groundbreaking scientific experiment in Novosibirsk, one of the major Siberian cities, revealed the power of epigenetics—how genetic changes may occur through ‘destabilizing selection’ like animal behaviour. This theory, long overshadowed by traditional genetics, was demonstrated in the mid-20th century by two Soviet geneticists, Dmitry Belyaev and Lyudmila Trut, who were able to domesticate the arctic fox within 25 years using a method called ‘destabilizing selection.’ This scientific experiment remains one of the most successful in the history of biology.

The Pazyryk carpet, (c) The State Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg

Let’s return to archaeology. Equally significant are the discoveries related to the Pazyryk culture, which thrived in the Altai Mountains around the 5th to 3rd centuries BCE. Excavations of Pazyryk burial mounds, or kurgans, have revealed remarkably well-preserved artifacts due to the permafrost, including mummified human remains, textiles, wooden structures, and intricate tattoos on the bodies of the deceased. The most famous discovery is the “Ice Maiden,” a mummified Scytho-Siberian woman found in a kurgan in the Ukok Plateau. The Pazyryk discoveries provide a detailed picture of the social structure, beliefs, and daily life of this ancient nomadic culture. These findings have shown that the Pazyryk people practiced elaborate burial rituals, indicating a belief in the afterlife. The intricate tattoos found on the Ice Maiden suggest a highly developed art form and possibly a system of social or spiritual symbolism. These discoveries illustrate the advanced skills in craft and artistry, as well as the complex social and religious practices of the Pazyryk people. The lack of collaboration between archaeologists and local Indigenous communities in Altai is a highly debated issue. To better understand these misunderstandings and the ongoing conflict, we recommend watching this short BBC documentary about the Indigenous Altai communities’ response to the work of Novosibirsk archaeologists.

These are just a few examples from the vast array of archaeological discoveries made in the last century. Siberia continues to attract scholars who, together with local and Indigenous communities, uncover the region’s deep history and reshape our understanding of the past.

 

Task 9

Select one of the archaeological discoveries for further research. Create a presentation or a report. Explain the significance of the discovery for modern understanding of ancient life.

 

Task 10

Browse the archaeological artifacts of Eastern Europe and Siberia collection on the State Hermitage Museum’s website. Select an artifact and answer the questions:

  • What is the object? Describe its physical characteristics (size, shape, material, color, etc.).
  • What is the estimated age of the artifact? How was this determined?
  • What was the likely function or purpose of this artifact?
  • How does this artifact compare to similar objects from other cultures?

Resources 

 

Artifacts

The State Hermitage Museum. (n.d.) Archaeological artifacts of Eastern Europe and Siberia collection. Retrieved from https://hermitagemuseum.org/wps/portal/hermitage/woa-search.

 

Non-fiction and Academic Book Chapters 

Crate, S. A. (2021). Once Upon the Permafrost: Knowing Culture and Climate Change in Siberia. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.

Dugatkin, A. L., and Trut L. (2017). How to Tame a Fox (and Build a Dog). Visionary Scientists and a Siberian Tale of Jump-Started Evolution. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press.

Eliade, M. (2024). Shamanism: Archaic techniques of ecstasy. Princeton University Press.

Graham, L. (2016). Lysenko’s Ghost. Epigenetics and Russia. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.

Kropotkin, P. (2011). Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution. Neeland Media LLC.

McGregor, D. (2004). Traditional ecological knowledge and sustainable development: Towards coexistence. In the way of development: Indigenous peoples, life projects and globalization, 72-91.

Vitebsky, P. (2006). The Reindeer People: Living with Animals and Spirits in Siberia. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

Znamenski, A. A. (2003). Shamanism in Siberia: Russian Records of Indigenous Spirituality. Dordrecht ; London: Kluwer.

Znamenski, A. A. (2007). The Beauty of the Primitive: Shamanism and the Western Imagination. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press.

Willerslev, R. (2007). Soul Hunters: Hunting, Animism, and Personhood among the Siberian Yukaghirs. Berkley, Los Angeles, London: University of California Press.

 

Academic Articles 

Anderson, D. G. (2017). Humans and Animals in Northern Regions. Annual Review of Anthropology, 46 (1), 133–49. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-anthro-102116-041556.

Arzyutov, D. V. (2019). Environmental Encounters: Woolly Mammoth, Indigenous Communities and Metropolitan Scientists in the Soviet Arctic. Polar Record, 55 (3), 142–53. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0032247419000299.

Lbova, L. (2021). The Siberian Paleolithic site of Mal’ta: a unique source for the study of childhood archaeology. Evolutionary Human Sciences3, e9.

Losey, R. J., Nomokonova T., Arzyutov D. V., Gusev A. V., Plekhanov A. V., Fedorova N. V., and Anderson D. G. 2021. Domestication as Enskilment: Harnessing Reindeer in Arctic Siberia. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 28 (1), 197–231. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10816-020-09455-w.

Huntington, H., Callaghan T., Fox S., and Krupnik I. 2004. Matching Traditional and Scientific Observations to Detect Environmental Change: A Discussion on Arctic Terrestrial Ecosystems. AMBIO: A Journal of the Human Environment, 33 (sp13), 18–23. https://doi.org/10.1007/0044-7447-33.sp13.18.

UNESCO World Heritage Centre. (2017). Treasures of the Pazyryk Culture. Retrieved from https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/6283/ 

Ziker, J. P., Rasmussen, J., & Nolin, D. A. (2016). Indigenous Siberians solve collective action problems through sharing and traditional knowledge. Sustainability Science11, 45-55.

 

Videos

Bernstein, A. (Director). (2002). Join me in Shambala [Film]. Documentary Educational Resources. https://www.kanopy.com/en/product/115739?vp=jcls

Bernstein, A. (Director). (2006). In Pursuit of the Siberian Shaman [Film]. Documentary Educational Resources. https://www.kanopy.com/en/product/pursuit-siberian-shaman

Churkin, O. (Director). (1981). Mother For a Little Mammoth [Cartoon]. https://dai.ly/x2mpew0 

Frei, C. & Arbugaev, M. (Directors). (2018). Genesis 2.0. [Film]. Documentary Educational Resources. https://www.kanopy.com/en/product/genesis-20?frontend=kui 

Herzog, W. & Vasyukov, D. (Directors). (2010). Climate change in Siberia – Artic permafrost is melting [Film]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=psnY17CImaQ

Levins, D. (Director). (2021). A Year in the Ice: The Arctic Drift [Film]. Channel 4. https://www.channel4.com/programmes/a-year-in-the-ice-the-arctic-drift

Siberian Times. (2016, June 9). Siberian wildfires create havoc [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tt2AYafET68 

SibFolklore. (2014, Apr. 16). Buryats. Shaman ritual (fragment) [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZFalaY7d4ug