Poland’s history began in the 10th century with the rise of the Piast dynasty. Rulers of Poland during this time were either given the title of “prince” or “king” depending on their position as well as other factors that we will learn about later in this section. This period marked the early development of the country that would eventually become the Poland that we know today. Rule under the Piasts lasted until 1370 and this period is not only crucial for understanding the origins of Poland and its consolidation as a nation, but also its conversion to Catholic Christianity and interactions with neighboring regions that would impact its history going forward.
Poland’s Mythical Origins
Piast the Wheelwright by Walery Eljasz Radzikowski, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.
The beginnings of the Piast dynasty are rooted in folk legend from the 12th century. As the story goes, when Prince Popiel of Gnesen (now Gniezno) died during the 9th century (legend has it that he was supposedly eaten by some rather hungry mice), he was succeeded by Siemowit, who was the son of his plowman, Piast, thus marking the beginning of the Piast dynasty that ruled the Polish lands until 1370. However, while this legend is exciting, the name “Piast dynasty” was not used in writing until the 17th century and the first written historical record of the Piast dynasty begins with Prince Mieszko I (930-992). Mieszko I is typically considered to be the first ruler of Poland. Before his reign, the territory that would eventually become Poland was inhabited by various Slavic tribes that were loosely connected through language and culture but lacked any sort of political unity.
Mieszko I and the Baptism of Poland
Mieszko I by Jan Matejko, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.
Mieszko I is often credited with laying the foundation of the Polish state. Under his leadership, the scattered Slavic tribes were unified into a single political entity. Mieszko also strategically expanded his realm through warfare and alliances, consolidating territories that now form part of Poland today. By the end of his reign, Poland included the lands of Pomerania, Silesia, and Little Poland. One of Mieszko’s most significant and long-lasting decisions was his conversion to Catholic Christianity in 966 which had a profound impact on Poland’s development from that point forward.
Mieszko’s baptism was not only a religious act but also a political strategy. By adopting Christianity, Mieszko aligned Poland with the other Christian kingdoms of Europe which drew a cultural and religious boundary within the continent. This conversion, also called the Baptism of Poland, allowed him to tap into Christian Europe’s military power and technology in a way that was not possible before. This helped to protect Poland and integrated it into the broader cultural and political framework of medieval Europe. This process also included the establishment of the first Polish dioceses (or an area under the pastoral care of a bishop) in Poznań in 968 which helped to solidify the church’s influence in Poland. By 963 Mieszko I was the ruler of a highly developed society in the territories that would later be known as Great Poland. After his death Mieszko’s son and heir Bolesław I Chrobry (Boleslaus I; 992-1025) continued his father’s legacy of expanding the Polish lands while also strengthening its internal administration and church organization.
Bolesław I Chrobry
Bolesław I Chrobry, also known as Bolesław the Brave, was as formidable a warrior on the battlefield as he was a diplomat. As mentioned previously, his reign saw the continued expansion of Polish territories, including parts of present-day Slovakia, Moravia, and Western Pomerania. Bolesław’s most significant achievement during his reign was obtaining the royal crown in 1025, making him the very first King of Poland.
Bolesław’s reign, much like his father’s, was marked by numerous military campaigns and diplomatic maneuvers. He supported the Christianization of neighboring pagan tribes and established ecclesiastical structures that further integrated Poland into the European Christian community. Bolesław also played a crucial role in European politics, allying his nation with the Holy Roman Empire and participating in conflicts against various regional powers.
Poland (992–1025); area that is dark pink color represents Piast lands at the end of the rule of Mieszko I (992); dark red border shows the lands at the end of the reign of Bolesław I (1025). Poznaniak, Popik, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons.
Fragmentation and Reunification
Following Bolesław’s death, Poland experienced a period of division and internal conflict under his sons Mieszko II Lambert (1025–34), Bezprym (1031–32), Kazimierz I (Casimir I; 1034–37, 1038/39–58), Bolesław II (Boleslaus II; 1058–79), and Władysław I Herman (1079–1102). This period of fragmentation lasted from the late 11th century until the 13th century. The kingdom was divided among the Piast princes, leading to a weakening of central authority, as well as the loss of their title of king, in favor of having Poland divided into several semi-independent duchies, each ruled by a different Piast prince. Additionally, Boleslaw I’s sons engaged in numerous struggles that led to overall territorial loss which made Poland vulnerable to external threats, including invasions by the Teutonic Knights and the Mongols.
It was not until the rule of Władysław I Herman’s only son Bolesław III Krzywousty (Boleslaus III Wrymouth; 1044-1102) did Poland’s territory begin to resemble that of Mieszko I’s. Regretfully, Bolesław III did fail to regain the title of king and was unable to put an end to the behavior and rivalries that led to internal strife that weakened the unity of the Polish lands. In an effort to preserve solidarity amongst the Piast lands and avoid future conflict, Bolesław divided Poland among his sons. Each of these territories—Silesia, Great Poland, Mazovia, and Sandomierz—would be ruled by one of Bolesław’s sons. The most senior member of the dynasty would also rule the capital Kraków and Pomerania as the grand prince over the other territories of the state of Poland
Unfortunately, while Boleslaw III’s new system of rule was a good idea initially, it did stimulate more divisiveness and the overall power of the grand prince of Kraków declined after the reign of Boleslaw III’s son Kazimierz II (1138–1194). Over the course of the next 150 years Poland suffered from continued friction, aggravated by power struggles, foreign invasion, and conquest of the regions along its borders. Despite the challenges that this period brought, the fragmented duchies maintained a sense of cultural and political unity through their common church structure, language, and economy, all of which helped to eventually facilitate the reunification process of the kingdom.
King Władysław I Łokietek breaks negotiations with the Teutonic Knights by Jan Matejko, Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.
The early attempts at reunification were made by the Silesian princes Henryk I (Henry I) and Henryk II (Henry II) in the 1230s and by the prince of Great Poland Przemysł II (Premislaus II; 1257-1296) unfortunately ended in failure. For some time, Waclaw II (Wenceslas II; 1271-1305) of Bohemia became king of Poland after having gained control of a substantial portion of the Polish lands. However, sometime later Władysław I Łokietek (Władysław the Elbow-High (1261-1333)), a grandson of Konrad I (Conrad I) of Mazovia, was able to gain control of Sandomierz and Kraków and was crowned King of Poland in 1320 thanks to support from the nobility, clergy, Hungary, and the pope. This event marked the formal reunification of the Polish kingdom. It was through Władysław I that the Polish state was strengthened by forming political alliances with both Hungary and Lithuania.
The Reign of Kazimierz III Wielki
Kazimierz III Wielki by Leopold Löffler (1827-1898), Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons
One of the most notable rulers of the Piast dynasty was Władysław’s son Kazimierz III Welki (Casimir the Great; 1333-1370). Kazimierz inherited a kingdom that was still recovering from fragmentation and external invasions. His reign focused on strengthening the central authority, promoting economic development, and improving the Polish legal system. Kazimierz also further improved Poland’s position by facing up to two of the country’s greatest enemies, Bohemia, and the Teutonic Knights.
Kazimierz also implemented numerous reforms that had a lasting impact on Poland. He reorganized the administrative structure of the kingdom, codified laws, and promoted the development of towns and trade. Kazimierz founded the University of Kraków in 1364, one of the oldest universities in Central Europe, which became a center of learning and culture. Another noteworthy achievement during Kazimierz’s reign was that he was the first ruler of Poland to grant privileges to Poland’s Jewish community. These privileges protected Polish Jews from forced baptism, defacing of Jewish cemeteries, and with these protections in place Jews were allowed to settle in Poland in larger numbers than they previously had.
Kazimierz’s reign saw the expansion of Poland’s territory through diplomatic means rather than warfare. He secured the incorporation of Red Ruthenia (part of modern-day Ukraine) into Poland, significantly increasing the kingdom’s size and influence. Kazimierz’s policies laid the groundwork for Poland’s emergence as a major European power in the subsequent centuries.
Piast lands during reign of Kazimierz III shown within the red border; Silesia (yellow) and Pomerania (purple) were lost, but the kingdom expanded in the southeast. Poznaniak, CC BY-SA 3.0 <https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0>, via Wikimedia Commons.
End of the Piast Dynasty
The Piast dynasty faced the end of its era in the late 14th century as the death of Kazimierz III in 1370 marked the end of his line since he did not have a male heir to succeed him. This led to a succession crisis and eventually his nephew, Louis I of Hungary, was crowned King of Poland, but his rule was a short-lived one only lasting from 1370 to 1382. Louis was eventually succeeded by his daughter Jadwiga and her husband Władysław II Jagiełło (Jogaila), the grand duke of Lithuania. Their marriage united Poland and Lithuania and marked the beginning of the Jagellonian dynasty and would eventually lead to the creation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
The Piast dynasty’s legacy is deeply ingrained in Polish history and identity. The dynasty’s rulers were instrumental in the formation and consolidation of the Polish state, the Christianization of Poland, and the establishment of institutions that would endure for centuries. The Piast period saw the emergence of Poland as a significant political and cultural entity in medieval Europe. Additionally, this period laid the foundations for the Polish state’s territorial expansion, legal and administrative reforms, and continued integration into the European community. Their efforts to maintain and strengthen the kingdom amidst internal and external challenges set the stage for Poland’s rise as a major power under the subsequent Jagiellonian dynasty which you will learn more about in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth section of this module.
Visit the History landing page for suggested learning activities pertaining to this topic.
For further reading on this topic, visit the Introduction to Poland Resource Guide.