Polish Society Under German Occupation- My Site Report

Between 1939 and 1945 Poland existed under the rule of the Generalgouvernment. German occupation of Poland created a vacuum of norms leading to the destruction of social order and a ubiquitous onslaught of misfortune. Already unstable from the effects of the First World War, Poland had inconsistent borders and clashing demographics during the interwar period. The battles on the Eastern Front also contributed to the overall violence. The organization of the Generalgouvernment, along with the random system of punishment and terror, only supported citizens’ rationale behind engaging in activities deemed to be criminal to the regime. This including anything from black market trading, educating oneself on democratic ideals, aiding a Jewish or otherwise “undesirable” neighbor, to defying the orders of a German official. The primary goal was survival, and the hardships that ensued in this pursuit made German-occupied Poland a society unlike the others under German rule during World War II.

Collaboration, cooperation, corruption, violence, and a total reorganization of all traditional institutions defined the country and the era. Under the hate-fueled guise of ideology, the Nazis systematically destroyed Polish society to make room for genocide. Resistance against German rule took place throughout the war, but it was consistently crushed and answered with further oppression and violence. However, there are quite a few stories of heroism and bravery that exemplify the determination of many to fight back against Nazi Germany.

These stories includes that of Oskar Schindler. Schindler was a German entrepreneur sent to Poland by the Third Reich shortly after the invasion in order to take advantage of the economic resources and infrastructure there (especially that which had been confiscated from the Jewish population). He used his charm and bureaucratic finesse to take advantage of this situation, and he managed to run his own line of factories and gain a position of power in Krakow. He used Jewish slave laborers from the city’s ghetto and eventually concentration camps in his factories. Schindler is seen today as a savior because he used his position to protect the Jews who worked for him. The administrative building of his original factory still stands in Krakow, and it is used as a museum to commemorate both his efforts and Krakow’s experience before, during, and after the Second World War. (Note: This report was designed to be presented at this museum, and the location was changed to avoid issues with the content and the personnel at this location.)

After gaining independence from the Treaty of Versailles following World War I, the Second Republic was the government in place in Poland. The Second Republic was barely democratic by international standards of the time, and it was ruled and organized with the educated and wealthy elites in power. Poland was a majority Catholic nation, though new borders and displacement from the First World War left the population consisting of a 30% minority. One third of this minority was Jewish. Anti-Semitic sentiments were not at all introduced into Polish society by the Third Reich. The Second Republic political system was quick to fall, the leaders were quick to flee, and the social expectations and national purposes were quick to disappear almost entirely.

Nazi Germany invaded Poland September 1, 1939, and the Allies then declared war on Germany two days later with no actual action to follow on behalf of Poland. Punishment, withholding of resources, and general terror against Polish civilians under the Generalgouvernment escalated from targeting minorities such as Jews and elites to a random system of oppression, and without regard for statutes or personal status. This disorder and fear led to ubiquitous desperation where it was understood that it did not matter what activities, “legal” or not, one partook in. All were subjected to aggression and the permanent threat of violence and deprivation. This largely was a result of the lack of centralization.

The governor general and thus the head of the Generalgouvernment was Hans Frank, the former president of the German Academy of Law. However, his credentials are misleading, and he gained his position through personal relationships rather than competence or an ability to lead. He exerted minimal control over those serving under him. His orders would occasionally be ignored completely, and overzealous German officers and soldiers launched unauthorized pogroms and mass slaughters. The Generalgouvernment eradicated the norms and order provided by the Second Republic, and it failed to replace them. Instead of rule, the Germans brought terror.

Success became relative to survival. All forms of social regulation and control, such as the sanctity of jobs, social programs, and schooling, were eradicated, leaving an emptiness in the organization and functioning of Polish society that was filled with fear and uncertainty. The scarcity of material goods and influence in communities led to a new reliance on personal connections as a form of social capital that could make the difference between life and death on a daily basis. This influenced some cooperation with German authorities, but for the most part it led to a reliance on the underground society for food, information, and comradery. Corruption and the black market flourished.

As they invaded and occupied the regions of Poland, the Germans left most mayors and village heads in their place, or they would replace them with more willing collaborators. Other government officials, especially those of German descent and  those dealing with transportation and resource related logistics, were allowed to keep their positions if they cooperated as well, and many used this to take advantage over resource collection and allocation. This ranged from individuals hoarding money and resources for themselves to individuals providing for their communities. It is an injustice to history to ignore the fact that this cooperation, perpetrated by officials of the former Second Republic and Poles, was collaboration with Nazi terror.

What evidence is available from this period shows us that such a removal of norms is deleterious to decency. The Generalgouvernment allowed, encouraged, and fostered violence. Neighbors slaughtered neighbors, and almost the entirety of the Polish Jewish population was wiped out. For many, the most compelling figures during the Second World War were those who perished in work and death camps such as Auschwitz. There were 457 extermination camps in Poland, some with sub camps nearby, and there were additional forced labor and prisoner of war camps as well.

The Final Solution led to the slaughter of 90% of the Polish Jewish population. In addition, about a fifth of the pre-war population was wiped out, the largest portion of a pre-war population to perish out of all of the countries involved in World War II. No articulation of the extent of human loss can properly put this into a perspective that we can truly understand. No matter the difficulty of the subject matter, we have a moral responsibility as humans and historians to prevent such an

Krakow, Poland

atrocity to happen again. The removal of norms, thus the eradication of purpose and shared values in society, led to Poland’s collapse into the abyss of annihilation, opening the door for Nazi Germany to massacre of millions of human beings.

The French Facade

Moving on from London, I spent about a week in Bayeux, France and a few days in Paris, France. During our time in France I was able to use my French language abilities to assist with translating for our professors and to get around day to day life. My travels in France interested me more than those in England, as the different language and the diverse types of spaces we saw made it a more fulfilling exploration. From the small town of Bayeux, the seaside villages near Caen and St. Marie Eglise, to the city of Paris, I feel I saw and learned quite a bit about France. I did not come onto this program with any particularly strong focus on the American involvement and experience in World War II, but my time in France- especially in the museums- bolstered a newfound expectation towards this.

Like many Americans, I have personal connections to the losses incurred during the war. Both of my [maternal] grandparents’ fathers served in the Army during the Second World War, coming from the same small, rural Ohio community. My grandmother lost her father to this at a very young age, and this is something that affected her deeply. Knowing this, and therefore valuing the memory of my late Great Grandfather, Joseph Ferrell, who was killed in action in Belgium, I found multiple French accounts of their version of history that did not do my family’s loss, nor those of other families, proper justice.

An example of this includes the framing of Allied Victory as French Victory in the Caen Memorial Museum (among others). One of the many text boxes adorning the artifact encasements, timelines, and portraits actually stated that the French would have liberated themselves (Paris) even if the Allies had not invaded. Many of my comrades also found this to be a shocking statement, as it goes against the facts. In addition, we came to this museum with the memory and images of the bloody destruction of American forces during the invasions (Utah and Omaha Beach, more specifically). Though the Free French Army was still in existence and moderately active (relative to not at all), it is not the case that the success of the invasions and of the defeat of Germany can be accredited to France at the level in which it was.

German Stride and Symbolism

Though my time in Germany was disrupted with an overnight hospital stay and some time off due to illness, I learned a lot from the sites I was able to visit. In Berlin I found the Reichstag and the Holocaust Memorial to really speak to the history of the nation in addition to what I learned in my Spring studies at Ohio State. The Third Reich and the rule of Nazism over Germany before and during the Second World War is clearly a dark time in German history. The German initiative to acknowledge and move forward from this history as a nation was exemplified through their historical markers and strivings to change their representation through symbols such as architecture.

We were lucky enough to have a brilliantly thorough and knowledgeable tour guide for our tour of the Reichstag. The decision processes that went into the creation and building of the new German Reichstag and central government buildings after the Second World War and following the Cold War were extensive and complicated. As is also apparent in our own country, politics extend further than power and policy. Political influences went into the entirety of the process of building and adorning the Reichstag, from the location to the seat colors. All decisions were influenced both by partisan pressures and by the persistent goal to move away from anything that ties the new Germany to the old Nazi Germany.

Coming to Germany from Poland, where we visited Auschwitz and learned more about the devastation and demise that came about as a result of Nazi Germany, our perceptions began with bitterness and sadness. I was particularly interested in seeing how the Germans were going to acknowledge their nation’s past actions, as I studied Polish Society Under German Occupation for my specialization on this trip. I found that museums did little justice to this necessary acknowledgement, but I was impressed by how moving the Holocaust Memorial was. It was centrally located with the most important buildings, such as the Reichstag, which symbolized its importance to the history. The Holocaust Memorial represented a determination to keep such a tragedy from happening in the future while it also showed the build-up to genocide and loss that occurred. I however believe that the reality of the genocide that took place in the name of Germany should be approached in a way that better expresses its value as amongst the worst acts of humanity more clearly through museums and other historical reminders .

Polish Resilience: Determination and Denial

Going into this trip, I was most looking forward to Poland due to my extensive studies of the nation through both my International Affairs Scholars Program Capstone Project (Interwar Polish History) and through my specialization project for this study abroad (Polish Society Under German Occupation). I received a Polish Studies Initiative Scholarship from the Center for Slavic and Eastern European Studies at Ohio State, and I was excited to present the second portion of my Polish Historical Studies research that went along with receiving it. From what I learned through extensive readings about Poland, especially by historians Jan Gross and Norman Davies, I came into the country with an image of a dynamic yet distressed country that has experienced invasions, war, and changing borders and demographics for centuries. To no surprise, I found a national character of resilience apparent through sites and attitudes.

There were monuments and symbolic acknowledgements of the destruction Poland faced during World War II at every turn in Krakow. However, at the same time there were symbols and clear examples of strength through successful commercialization and the beautifully preserved and maintained city center. This spoke to the national character of resilience and determination against the Nazi attempt to eradicate the Poles and the Soviet attempt to replace Poland with a Russian satellite. In addition, the augmentation of a future and a continued Polish nation through family pride and community development was clear in the society that stands today.

Though the determination of the Polish people is a positive national characteristic, the refusal of the Polish people to fully acknowledge the facts of the Holocaust is most definitely negative, and it is widely noticed today through international news. Recently, a bill was signed that bans any accusations of collective responsibility by the Polish Nation or State for Nazi Germany’s war crimes. The basic premise of this bill asserts that all collective action during the Holocaust was at the hands of Nazi Germany. However, as I illegally announced in a public park, this is not the case. The collaboration that took place was at a relatively small scale, but it is still relevant to understanding the functionality of the systematic genocide that took place in Poland. It is the responsibility of all nations to accept, acknowledge, and strive to counteract their dark pasts. It is now the responsibility of Poland to step away from bans on free speech and to step towards a more thorough understanding and acceptance of its history. This begins with the acknowledgement of the nationality of the Polish Jews that perished in the Holocaust (90% of the nation’s Jewish population).

Crisis and Character from the Battle of Britain and WWII – London, UK

After a few days in Ireland (Dublin and Galway) and Scotland (Edinburgh and Leith), I began my study abroad trip in London, England. Transitioning from seeing my peers in our seminar and history class to being with them to continue our studies across the world is an educational experience that will be one of my favorite memories from my time at The Ohio State University. Through my site visits and general cultural observations, bolstered by my studies during the spring semester, I noticed consistent themes deriving from the Second World War in the British interpretation of their national identity and history. The themes most prevalent are the mild-tempered composure and resiliency.

The RAF Bomber Command Memorial and St. Paul’s Cathedral are two of the many sites that I visited during my time in London, and I found them to be especially compelling in exemplifying the nation’s interpretation of their history and culture. The RAF Bomber Command Memorial portrayed the airmen who defended London during the Battle of Britain as larger than life, yet also included human characteristics through facial expressions and detailed imperfections. Though god-like in stature, these statues wore forlorn faces and disheveled uniforms. This contrast delivered the perspective that the British, especially those that who risked the most for their country, were heroes for their resiliency and sacrifices, yet these sacrifices and the destruction still hold as real and tragic rather than glorious. St. Paul’s Cathedral has a symbolic standing derived from a famous photograph (attached) in which it stands amidst bombing destruction during the Battle of Britain. The commemoration of a violent war at a serene church represents how ubiquitous the memory of World War II is throughout London.

To reconcile with times of conflict and confusion, nations tend to cling to their identifications to buttress their existence and security. The British cling to their identity of nonchalant and humorous composure, and the stories they tell of both military and civilian resiliency and determination reflect this today. I found these themes to be present throughout London, even where I did not expect it. The Second World War was not only a portion of the past of Britain, but a part of the identification of the people.

RAF Bomber Command Memorial in London, UK

St. Paul’s Cathedral During the Battle of Britain in London, UK

St. Paul’s Cathedral in London, UK

Some comrades and I after climbing the stairs to the top of St. Paul’s Cathedral (left to right: Lindsay Gottlieb, Katie Crum, Kate Greer, Audrey Bagarus, me; photograph by Laura DeAngelis).